Tools - Historical Identification
  1. Furnace: BNF search “reverberatory”
    1. 006v:“a small furnace made like a reverberatory oven but with openings on both sides.”
    2. “Under the door is a grill that supports the burning charcoal. The ash is emptied by turning the stove upside down.”
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    4. 016r: “ <ab> It is necessary that the <fr> tuelle </fr> is inserted <sup> through </sup> to the middle of the <tl> furnace </tl> opening, which is a main clue for the secret because the wind will hit the edge and the wall, which makes up the center of the <tl> furnace </tl> and in that manner, it spreads equally everywhere, as well as above, like flames in a reverberatory oven, and thus heats much more; because if the <env> wind </env> hits the melted or ready to be melted matter perpendicularly, it would cool it down and it would stop it from running and melting.”
    5. 115v: “The molds for <m> tin </m> casting are much better annealed in a reverberatory furnace. </ab>”
    6. 124v_2: <ab>Molds are recooked better &amp; more surely than otherwise in a closed fire, such as a <del><tl>pot</tl></del> a <tl>reverberatory furnace</tl>.
    7. 127v_1: <ab> <margin>left-bottom</margin> Reheat in a reverberatory furnace.</ab>
    8. 161r_1: Having been thus dried, put them to be recooked in very high heat in a reverberatory furnace for a good amount of time, where they will become very red.
  2. Pincers/Tweezers: BNF search “pincers”
    1. 006v: “Small pincers that have long beaks”
    2. 036v: <div><id>p036v_2</id><head>Air furnace</head><ab>Its mouth has to be narrower than its bottom; it is sufficient if the crucible can get in, and if there is space enough to remove it with pincers.</ab> </div>
    3. 167r_1: But because the doors are sometimes iron and the iron rods cannot pierce it, an iron fork made like pincers and another iron stick made with three claws, like you see painted, are use.
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    5. 168r: <ab> E <m> iron </m> fork made in the form of pincers as tall as a man, used to quickly set the mortar without a rod. It must be of soft <m> iron </m> so that the sides fold easily, if needed, and to accommodate the height or width of the door. </ab><ab> F is another <m> iron </m> fork of the same height that supports the fork made as pincers and also sustains the mortar, and with its low claw prevents the pincers from recoiling. </ab> <cont/> </div>
    6. 168v: <ab>P are small <m>iron</m> pincers for putting any low mortar against the bolt of a door.</ab>
    7. 107r: <id> p107r_a1 </id><head> Catching <m><al> lizards </al></m> and <m><al> snakes </al></m> </head><ab> Take a stick, pin a net with a slipknot to the top. Whistle, and move the net nearer to the head of the lizard, and pull when it put it's head inside the net. It is more difficult to take a lizard with your hands than a snake, because lizards bite without letting go, and bite as strong as pincers. </ab>
    8. 111v: He squeezes the fingernail like a pair of pincers, but he cannot go through it, but he squeezes it quite hard; and if he bit the flesh, he would never let go of his hold, and there would be no better remedy than to cut off his head promptly.
    9. 114r: remove all the little tacks with the help of very small flat pincers. </ab>
    10. 128v: Make a hole in your sand, and with you pincers put your red hot mold in this sand hole.
    11. 129v: Then block the end of the legs with a bit of melted wax using a warm <m>iron</m> wire, and smooth it out with the tip of a pair of small pincers.
    12. 144r_1: On turtles: “Stretch the aforesaid head and legs with your little pincers. Once the head is in place, dextrously put a grain of yellow millet into each eye with the pincers, because as soon as they die, the eyes pop out and rot.”
    13. 146r: <ab><margin>left-bottom</margin> Heed that you not attach the stem of the flower too firmly to the casting with <m>wax</m>, lest it consume something when you remove the <m>wax</m> from the casting. To remove it, you have to loosen it a bit all around &amp; then draw it out by the <m>iron</m> wire with little pincers.</ab>

Materials - Historical Identification
  1. Glass: Here I have only included recipes in which the author/practitioner demonstrates knowledge of glassworking techniques. For a more comprehensive list of recipes concerning glass, see my fieldnotes. The function of this set of research is to build an idea of what the author/practitioner knew of professional glassworking techniques (i.e. - more working with the material than making it).
    1. 006v: “Glass button-makers also use the said stove.”
    2. 036v_2: <div>
    3. <id>p036v_3</id>
    4. <head><pro>Glassmakers</pro>' glass</head> <ab>It is said that in <pl>Lorraine</pl> and <pl>Flanders</pl> <m>linking glass</m> is made of <m>fern ashes</m> and <m>pebbles</m>. First they blow up a long still that another worker breaks off and cuts vertically with big shears. Then this long still expands by being placed on a stone or large platine in a furnace slightly colder than one for melting. Furthermore, they flatten it by rolling <sup>over</sup> it a big and long iron stick. Then they take it out of the annealing furnace. Similarly, they make some in <pl>England</pl> that are quite beautiful. Close to <pl>Rouen</pl> in <pl>France</pl>, flat glass is made with some <m>saltworth</m> and <m>pebbles</m> and is whiter and softer than the <pl>Lorraine</pl> one, because it can be melted with a candle, unlike the <pl>Lorraine</pl> one. This flat <m>glass</m> is blown up in a long still -- the end of which someone else cuts and blows up whilst turning it, then flattens it using a plane which is on the ground, and then reheats it. Thus the middle of the still, where it began, always stays the same.</ab> <ab><margin>left-middle</margin>The <m>glass</m>, when wet, can be broken again with the flame of a candle, but not as precisely as with hot iron.</ab> </div>
    5. 037v: <div> <id>p037v_2</id> <head><pro>Glass-maker</pro></head> <ab> Some do not lay <m>gris d'escaille</m> on the <m>glass</m> to work on it, but trace straight on the <m>glass</m> with <m>noir à huile</m>. However, it is important that the <m>wood</m> be <m>degreased</m>, because if it has even a little <m>grease</m> [on it], the color will not take at all. And even, if the working <pro>glass-maker</pro> has a stink from his nose or his mouth, and he breathes on the <m>glass</m>, the color will not take on it. Those who came up with the invention of working in small works of softened <m>enamels</m> use only <m>azure enamel</m>, which is blue, and <m>esmail colombin</m>, which is the color of purple, which they soften with <m>rocks</m> or <m>lead glass</m>. As for yellow, they make it from <m>silver</m>, red from <m>sanguine</m>, as is said elsewhere, black and gray and shadows from <m>scale black</m>, either strong or weak, carnation from light <m>sanguine</m>. Green is made first from yellow, then they overlay <m>azure enamel</m>, either strong or weak, depending on whether they want to make it bright or dark. </ab></div> ALSO ENAMEL
  2. Enamel: BNF search “enamel” and the french “esmail”
    1. 006v: You can embellish them with <m> thin </m><m> enamel </m><m> canes </m> of various colors by covering the <m> yellow latten </m> or <m> iron </m> wire with said canes.
    2. Cotgrave defines “esmail” as: m. Ammell, or enammell; (is made of glasse, and mettals, or Chaulx metalique; for which Looke Chaulx.) Esmail de Venise. A kind of blacke enammell made at Venice. [ESM]
    3. Cotgrave defines “Chaulx” as: f. Lime. Chaulx metallique. Is made (especially that kind whereof Ennamell is compounded) of two parts of lead, and one of Cornewall Tinne, well calcinated together in an oven of reverberation. [CHA]
    4. 003r: Coral made of red enamel withstands filing and polishing.
    5. It is made like cement, which is stronger when mixed with crushed glass rather than with brick. In the same way, together with the vermilion, one mixes in opaque red enamel, finely ground. It is the same way with all enamel colors.
    6. 006r: If you want to glaze with azure it must be set on burnished silver. Take azure enamel, and without grinding temper it with turpentine varnish and apply it.
    7. 007r: Next, the stamped piece is colored with the aforesaid lacquer colours of lacquer, verdet, blue enamel, and soaked in turpentine varnish.
    8. 009v: The orpiment thus turns red like red enamel and it has to be ground first in distemper.
    9. 010r: Painters make it beautifully by first applying an undercoat of ordinary azur, or better yet, azure enamel.
    10. 011r: Painting enamel azure in oil… Some take the msot delicate they can & crush it with ceruse, which binds it, and next prick with an awl in several places the area they want to paint with azur d’esmail… Those who make it in germany compose it like enamel, in large pieces which they pestle, & pass through several sieves & wash.
    11. 012v: To whiten enilanroc. Some believe the ceruse color crust that is on top to be natural. Others say that it is a lost secret of ancient lapidaries. Others say that it is enamel that has been reheated. NOTE: enamel seems to refer to a finished, solid product - Check Chang and Clemens on Enamels.
    12. 039v: <div><id> p039v_a1 </id><head> <m> Enamel </m> </head><ab> <m> Enamel </m> takes more readily on <m> copper </m> than on <m> silver </m> . It is true that the cut needs to be well hollowed out & amp; rough. <m> Azure </m> in body & amp; the <m> red </m> called gules, white <m> enamel </m> & amp; thick <m> green </m> take very well. Having <m> enamelled </m> , one gilds the <fr> feuillages </fr> of the cutting <del> [illegible] </del> . <m> Copper </m> has a similar hardness when cut as pure <m> silver </m> or <cn><fr> pistolet </fr></cn><m> gold </m> . </ab>
    13. __https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1yFB2iZ89Aw__ . Here is a video on how to make “hollow” cane.
  3. Iron/Latten Wire
    1. 006v: <ab> You can embellish them with <m> thin </m><m> enamel </m><m> canes </m> of various colors by covering the <m> yellow latten </m> or <m> iron </m> wire with said canes.
    2. Cotgrave defines “archal” as: &; fil d’archal. Yellow laten wire; or copper wire.
    3. The New Standard Encyclopaedia Volume 7 (1907) - defines Latten as: “a kind of mixed metal; a fine kind of brass, of which the incised plates for sepulchral monuments, crosses, and a great proportion of the candlesticks, etc., used in parochial churches were made. Black latten is brass in milled sheets, used by braziers and for drawing into wire. Shaven latten is polished on both sides, ready for use. Latten wire is wire made from latten plate. It was thus made before the invention of wire-drawing.”
    4. 129v: Pierce the middle of the <al>spider</al>'s body with the tip of an <m>iron</m> or <m>latten</m> wire. Then fix diagonally some small <m>latten</m> tacks all around the vine leafs in order to secure it.
    5. 144r: He also uses wire to secure turtles for life casting.
    6. 146r: <ab><margin>left-top</margin> Uncover the molded flower while gently breaking the mold with the point of a knife. And, even better, soak it well in <m>water</m>. Afterwards, try a pig brush at the end of an <m>iron</m> wire, etc.</ab><ab><margin>left-middle</margin> When the mold is reheated for the first time, leave it to cool down halfway. Then, run an <m>iron</m> wire gentle through the casting to make an opening for the burned ash inside. Afterwards, blow inside with a bellows and turn the mold over on the casting to make everything leave, &amp; sometimes blow and suck in with your mouth.</ab><ab><margin>left-bottom</margin> Heed that you not attach the stem of the flower too firmly to the casting with <m>wax</m>, lest it consume something when you remove the <m>wax</m> from the casting. To remove it, you have to loosen it a bit all around &amp; then draw it out by the <m>iron</m> wire with little pincers.</ab>
    7. NOTES: latten shows up most often as a material for metalworking and only as wire in 006v and in the recipes for life casting. This suggests that as the New Encyclopaedia states, it was made not from drawing but from cutting up sheets of an alloyed metal.

Techniques - Historical Identification
I suspect that this recipe is related to lampworking and button-making techniques.
Lanmon, Dwight P with David B Whitehouse. Glass in the Robert Lehman Collection. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
According to Lanmon and Whitehouse (1993), radiographs done on eighteenth-century figurines from Nevers show that the figurines were constructed on heavy-gage iron wire armatures and “shaped from glass rods or tubes enclosing minute, threadlike copper wires that add further strength” (234). They also include a passage from Diderot (1759) that explains the process of lampworking, as well as a German woodcut from 1769 that pictures a German lampworking table.
From Diderot’s 1759 Encyclopedie, quoted in Lanmon (233-4):
“The lamps filled and lit, and the bellows activated, if the enameler plans to make a human or animal figure that is solid and of some height, he begins by forming a small structure of brass wire; he gives this small structure the general shape of the limbs of the figure for which it will serve as a support. He takes the structure in one hand and a baguette of solid enamel in the other: he exposes the enamel to the lamp; and when it is sufficiently fused, he attaches it to his brass wire, on which he models it with the flame, his rounded and pointed pincers, his pointed iron, and the blade of his knife, as he deems appropriate; because the enamels he uses are extremely fragile, and handle like paste over the flame: he continues his work as he began, using enamels, glass, and colors as befits the work he has undertaken.
If the figure is not solid, but hollow, the brass structure is superfluous: the enameller uses only a hollow tube of enamel or glass, in the color he wants for the body of the figure; when he has heated this tube sufficiently at the lamp, he blows it; the pressure of the air carried the length of the cavity of the tube to its end, which is closed, distends the enamel and creates a bubble: the enameler, with the aid of the flame and his instruments, gives to this bubble the appropriate form; this could be, if he wishes, the body of a swan: when the body of the bird is formed, he elongates and contours the neck; he forms the beak and the tail; he then takes solid enamels of the proper color, with which he makes the eyes, he outlines the beak, he makes the wings and the feet, and the animal is finished.”



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Radiographs of the eighteenth-century figurines in the Met, showing wire armatures and small copper wires.

Grießer, Martina et al. “Scientific investigation and study of the sixteenth-century glass jewelry collection of Archduke Ferdinand II.” In Contributions to the Vienna Congress 2012. DOI: 10.1179/2047058412Y.0000000027.
The first document related to lampworking is dated 1574. In Venice, lampworkers didn’t join the scuola dei paternostreri of 1338 (the guild of beadmakers) until 1629.
“Usually, lampworking was carried out at a wooden bench, under which a bellows worked by a treadle was mounted. The air flow was led through a tube in front of an oil lamp, creating a very hot, even horizontal flame.” 218.
The colored glass rods and tubes used in lampworking were “produced in specialized glass factories and sold to the lampworkers.” 218
Their analysis of the base glass reveals transparent glasses made of soda-lime silica glass, with lead oxide present only in the blue glasses where it appears as a contaminant of cobalt (added to get the blue color). 218.
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Tools - Modern Identification

  1. Furnace
  2. Pincers
Materials - Modern Identification
  1. Glass/Enamel Canes
    1. Today, lampworkers use soda-lime silica - which is known colloquially as “soft” glass. This is of very similar chemical composition to the glasses described by Grießer et. al. as those used by the lampworkers at Innsbruck.
  2. Latten/Iron Wire

Recipe Geneaology:
Instead of a recipe geneology (which is proving difficult because all I can find are recipes for melting glass and very few for working it), I have decided to search for mentions of lampworking or lampworked objects in contemporary texts. This might be one of the only extant descriptions of this process from this period.

Primary Sources that mention objects likely lampworked:
Olivier de la Marche (1454) (quoted in Lanmon p. 231): He describes a banquet at the Chateau de Lille at which “a very beautiful fountain partly in glass and partly in lead of a very new aspect, for there were small trees made of glass with marvelous leaves and flowers; and in an empty space, as a clearing, surrounded by rocks there was a small St. Andrew standing erect with his cross in from of him.”

Georgius Agricola (~1556): “The glass-makers make divers things, such as goblets, cups, ewers, flasks, dishes, plates, panes of glass, animals, trees, and ships, all of which excellent and wonderful works I have seen when I spent two whole years in Venice some time ago. Especially at the time of the Feast of the Ascension they were on sale at Morano, where are located the most celebrated glass-works.” 592. NOTE: While Agricola does describe glassblowing techniques, he does not mention lampworking, or describe anything close to the process that the author/practitioner describes in this recipe. Also, just for interest, Agricola describes a process that sounds like striking on this page and that he says results in better and more transparent glass.

Historical Research:
Dussubieux, Laure. “Chemical Investigation of Some 17th-Century French Glass Personal Ornaments.” In Journal of Glass Studies 51 (2009): 95-110.

Object Research

__http://www.cmog.org/artwork/figurine-beggar__ . Beggar Figurine from Nevers, 1700-1725

__www.khm.at/de/object/46fe609284/__ . Button from Innsbruck, 1570s.

__http://www.cmog.org/artwork/medallion-1?search=collection%3Aa8282ea4d7ff4f2e70f7d0a05954cfb4&page=6__ . Medallion from Nevers, 1675-1699.

Stuff at Corning on Nevers: __http://www.cmog.org/research/library-search/nevers__ .